Causas, efectos y eficacia de la burocratización en las administraciones públicas nacionales: desarrollando reformas sensibles a culturas políticas singulares
Causes, Effects and Effectiveness of Bureaucratization in Nations’ Public Administration: Developing Reforms Sensitive to Unique Political Cultures
Resumo (en)
Three fundamental questions about bureaucracy are examined here, ones related to the effectiveness of bureaucracy and bureaucratization. The questions are: 1) How much public bureaucracy is enough and how do we optimize the size of bureaucracy? 2) What are the normative models of bureaucracy and how does one choose among them? 3) What are the ends of bureaucracy and, specifically, how can “Public Values-Focused” bureaucracy be achieved? To the extent possible, the paper answers those questions in the context of a variety of contingency variables; especially political culture and the political culture focus of greatest interest pertains to nations of Latin America. In a nutshell, the paper concludes size optimization is not meaningful without the specification of a large number of prior contextual variables, the main components of which are specified. The normative models reviewed, after assessing the idea of “failed bureaucracy,” pertain to cost containment, neutral competence and public value notions. The document concludes by suggesting that a key to public value bureaucracy is establishing a high level of professionalism and an attendant high degree of bureaucratic autonomy.
Referências
Ades, Alberto y Di Tella, Rafael (1999), “Rents, Competition, and Corruption”, en American Economic Review, Vol. 89 Nº 4, pp. 982-993. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.89.4.982
Adsera, Alicia y Menendez, Alicia (2011), “Fertility Changes in Latin America in Periods of Economic Uncertainty”, en Population Studies, Vol. 65 Nº 1, pp. 37-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2010.530291
Alt, James E.; Lassen, Davis D.; y Skilling, David (2002), “Fiscal Transparency, Gubernatorial Approval, and the Scale of Government: Evidence from the States”, en State Politics and Policy Quarterly, Vol. 2 Nº 3, pp. 230-250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/153244000200200302
Atesoglu, H. Sonmez y Mueller, Michael J. (1990), “Defence Spending and Economic Growth”, en Defence and Peace Economics, Vol. 2 Nº 1, pp. 19-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10430719008404675
Barr, Judith K. y Steinberg, Marcia K. (2014), “Organizational Structure and Professional Norms in an Alternative Health Care Setting: Physicians in Health Maintenance Organizations”, en The Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, Vol. 7 Nº 3, pp. 341-358. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15453/0191-5096.1417
Bergh, Andreas y Bjørnskov, Christian (2011), “Historical Trust Levels Predict the Current Size of the Welfare State”, en Kyklos, Vol. 64 Nº 1, pp. 1-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.2010.00492.x
Biswas, Basudeb y Ram, Rati (1986), “Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: an Augmented Model and Further Evidence”, en Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 34 Nº 2, pp. 361-372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/451533
Bjørnskov, Christian y Svendsen, Gert T. (2013), “Does Social Trust Determine the Size of the Welfare State? Evidence Using Historical Identification”, en Public Choice, Vol. 157 Nos. 1-2, pp. 269-286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-012-9944-x
Blackburn, Keith; Neanidis, Kyriacos C.; y Rana, Maria P. (2015), “Organized Crime, Corruption and Growth: Theory and Evidence”, Manchester, University of Manchester. Department of Economics (Centre for Growth and Business Cycle Research; Nº 210).
Blau, Peter M. (1963), “Critical Remarks on Weber’s Theory of Authority”, en American Political Science Review, Vol. 57 Nº 2, pp. 305-316. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1952824
Boffey, Philips M. (1976), “International Biological Programme: Was it Worth the Cost and Effort?”, en Science, Nº 193, pp. 196-198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.193.4256.866
Bozeman, Barry (2000), Bureaucracy and Red Tape, Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall.
Bozeman, Barry (2007), Public Values and Public Interest: Counterbalancing Economic Individualism, Washington, Georgetown University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/book13027
Bozeman, Barry (2015), Bureaucratization Effectiveness, Governance and Reform, Phoenix, Arizona State University. Center for Organization Research and Design (Public Management Research Monograph), https://cord.asu.edu/.
Bozeman, Barry y Feeney, Mary K. (2011), Rules and Red Tape: a Prism for Public Administration Theory and Research, Armonk, ME Sharpe.
Bozeman, Barry; Reed, Pamela N.; y Scott, Patrick (1992), “Red Tape and Task Delays in Public and Private Organizations”, en Administration and Society, Vol. 24 Nº 3, pp. 290-322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/009539979202400302
Breaux, David A.; Clynch, Edward J.; y Morris, John C. (2003), “The Core Curriculum Content of NASPAA-Accredited Programs: Fundamentally Alike or Different?”, en Journal of Public Affairs Education, Vol. 9 Nº 4, pp. 259-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15236803.2003.12023598
Breton, Albert y Wintrobe, Ronald (1975), “The Equilibrium Size of a Budget-Maximizing Bureau: a Note on Niskanen’s Theory of Bureaucracy”, en The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 83 Nº 1, pp. 195-207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/260313
Brewer, Gene A. y Walker, Richard M. (2010), “The Impact of Red Tape on Governmental Performance: an Empirical Analysis”, en Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 20 Nº 1, pp. 233-257. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mun040
Brown, David (1989), “Bureaucracy as an Issue in Third World Management: an African Case Study”, en Public Administration and Development, Vol. 9 Nº 4, pp. 369-380. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230090404
Bryson, John M.; Crosby, Barbara C.; y Bloomberg, Laura (2014), “Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 74 Nº 4, pp. 445-456. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12238
Buscaglia, Edgardo y Van Dijk, Jan J. (2003), “Controlling Organized Crime and Corruption in the Public Sector”, en Forum on Crime and Society, Vol. 3 Nos. 1-2, pp. 3-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18356/9789211589504c004
Caiden, Gerald (1991), Administrative Reform Comes of Age, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110870152
Campbell, Alan K. (1978), “Civil Service Reform: a New Commitment”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 38 Nº 2, pp. 99-103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/976281
Campbell, Colin y Peters, B. Guy (1988), “The Politics/Administration Dichotomy: Death or Merely Change?”, en Governance, Vol. 1 Nº 1, pp. 79-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0491.1988.tb00060.x
Campos, Nauro F. y Nugent, Jeffrey B. (1999), “Development Performance and the Institutions of Governance: Evidence from East Asia and Latin America”, en World Development, Vol. 27 Nº 3, pp. 439-452. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00149-1
Carey, Maeve P. (2011), Senior Executive Service: Background and Options for Reform, Washington, U.S. Congressional Research Service.
Carnes, Nicholas y Lupu, Noam (2015), “Rethinking the Comparative Perspective on Class and Representation: Evidence from Latin America”, en American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 59 Nº 1, pp. 1-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12112
Centeno, Miguel Ángel (2003), Blood and Debt: War and the Nation-State in Latin America, University Park, Penn State University Press.
Centeno, Miguel Ángel y Ferraro, Agustín (2013), “Republics of the Possible: State Building in Latin America and Spain”, en State and Nation Making in Latin America and Spain: Republics of the Possible, Miguel Ángel Centeno y Agustín Ferraro (eds.), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139342667
Chubb, Judith (1981), “The Social Bases of an Urban Political Machine: the Case of Palermo”, en Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 96 Nº 1, pp. 107-125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2149679
Cigler, Beverly A. (1990), “Public Administration and the Paradox of Professionalization”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 50 Nº 6, pp. 637-653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/976975
Cockerham, William C. (2015), “Max Weber: Bureaucracy, Formal Rationality and the Modern Hospital”, en The Palgrave Handbook of Social Theory in Health, Illness and Medicine, Fran Collyer (ed.), Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137355621_8
Cueva, Amanda Tuset (2013), “Government Defence Anti-Corruption Index 2013”, en CESifo DICE Report, Vol. 11 Nº 2, pp. 55-56.
Dahl, Robert A. (1990), After the Revolution?: Authority in a Good Society, New Haven, Yale University Press.
Drometer, Marcus (2012), “Bureaucrats and Short-Term Politics”, en Public Choice, Vol. 151 Nos. 1-2, pp. 149-163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-010-9738-y
Durant, Robert R. (2002), “Toward Becoming a Learning Organization: Outcomes Assessment, NASPAA Accreditation, and Mission-Based Capstone Courses”, en Journal of Public Affairs Education, Vol. 8 Nº 3, pp. 193-208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15236803.2002.12023550
Ehrlich, Craig P. y Kang, Dae S. (2002), “Independence and Corruption in Korea”, en Columbia Journal of Asian Law, Vol. 16 Nº 1, pp. 1-69.
Eisenstadt, Shmuel N. (1959), “Bureaucracy, Bureaucratization, and Debureaucratization”, en Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 4 Nº 3, pp. 302-320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2390912
Engel, Gloria V. (1969), “The Effect of Bureaucracy on the Professional Autonomy of the Physician”, en Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 10 Nº 1, pp. 30-41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2948503
Evans, Peter y Rauch, James E. (1999), “Bureaucracy and Growth: a Cross-National Analysis of the Effects of ‘Weberian’ State Structures on Economic Growth”, en American Sociological Review, Vol. 64 Nº 5, pp. 748-765. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312249906400508
Frederickson, H. George (1980), New Public Administration, Tuscaloosa, University of Alabama Press.
Fry, Brian R. y Nigro, Lloyd G. (1996), “Max Weber and US Public Administration: the Administrator as Neutral Servant”, en Journal of Management History, Vol. 2 Nº 1, pp. 37-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/13552529610105654
Fukuyama, Francis (2013), “What Is Governance?”, en Governance, Vol. 26 Nº 3, pp. 347-368. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12035
Gaetani, Francisco (2000), The Intriguing Brazilian Administrative Reform, http://www.bresserpereira.org.br/Terceiros/Autores/Gaetani,Francisco/gaetani2.pdf.
Geddes, Barbara (1994), Politician’s Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America, Berkeley, University of California Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520918665
Goodsell, Charles T. (2003), The Case for Bureaucracy: a Public Administration Polemic, Thousand Oaks, Sage.
Gormley, William T. y Balla, Steven J. (2012), Bureaucracy and Democracy: Accountability and Performance, Thousand Oaks, Sage.
Graham, Lawrence S. (1990), The State and Policy Outcomes in Latin America, New York, Praeger Pub Text.
Grindle, Merilee (2010), “Constructing, Deconstructing, and Reconstructing Career Civil Service Systems in Latin America”, Cambridge, Harvard University. Kennedy School of Government (Faculty Research Working Paper Series; Nº 10-025).
Grossman, Philip J. (1987), “The Optimal Size of Government”, en Public Choice, Vol. 53 Nº 2, pp. 131-147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00125845
Hall, Richard H. (1963), “The Concept of Bureaucracy: an Empirical Assessment”, en American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 69 Nº 1, pp. 32-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/223508
Hall, Richard H. (1968), “Professionalization and Bureaucratization”, en American Sociological Review, Vol. 33 Nº 1, pp. 92-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2092242
Hanson, Mark (1974), “Organizational Bureaucracy in Latin America and the Legacy of Spanish Colonialism”, en Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 16 Nº 2, pp. 199-219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/174737
Hartley, Keith (2004), “The Economics of Military Outsourcing”, en Defence Studies, Vol. 4 Nº 2, pp. 199-206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1470243042000325904
Hood, Christopher (1991), “A Public Management for All Seasons?”, en Public Administration, Vol. 69 Nº 1, pp. 3-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00779.x
Huber, John D. y Shipan, Charles R. (2002), Deliberate Discretion?: the Institutional Foundations of Bureaucratic Autonomy, New York, Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804915
Huntington, Samuel P. (2006), Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven, Yale University Press.
Kaufman, Herbert (1956), “Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration”, en American Political Science Review, Vol. 50 Nº 4, pp. 1057-1073. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1951335
Kearney, Richard C. (1986), “Spoils in the Caribbean: the Struggle for Merit-Based Civil Service in the Dominican Republic”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 46 Nº 2, pp. 144-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/976166
Kearney, Richard C. (1988), “Political Responsiveness and Neutral Competence in the Developing Countries”, en Review of Public Personnel Administration, Vol. 8 Nº 2, pp. 66-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X8800800206
Klingner, Donald E. (1996), “Public Personnel Management and Democratization: a View from Three Central American Republics”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 56 Nº 1, pp. 390-399. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/976381
Kong, T. Y. (2004), “Corruption and the Effect of Regime Type: the Case of Taiwan”, en New Political Economy, Vol. 9 Nº 3, pp. 341-364. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1356346042000257796
Kurtz, Marcus J. y Schrank, Andrew (2007), “Growth and Governance: Models, Measures, and Mechanisms”, en Journal of Politics, Vol. 69 Nº 2, pp. 538-554. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00549.x
Larsen, Christian A. (2013), The Rise and Fall of Social Cohesion: the Construction and De-construction of Social Trust in the US, UK, Sweden and Denmark, Oxford, Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199681846.001.0001
Lo, Sonny S. H. (2008), “The Politics of Controlling Heidao and Corruption in Taiwan”, en Asian Affairs: an American Review, Vol. 35 Nº 2, pp. 59-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3200/AAFS.35.2.59-82
Machado, Fabiana; Scartascini, Carlos; y Tommasi, Mariano (2011), “Political Institutions and Street Protests in Latin America”, en Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 55 Nº 3, pp. 340-365. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002711400864
Madrid, Raúl L. (2012), The Rise of Ethnic Politics in Latin America, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139022590
Martins, Humberto Falcão (1997), “Administración pública gerencial y burocracia. La persistencia de la dicotomía entre política y administración”, en Revista del CLAD Reforma y Democracia, Nº 9, pp. 131-158.
Mayntz, Renate (2001), “El Estado y la sociedad civil en la gobernanza moderna”, en Revista del CLAD Reforma y Democracia, Nº 21, pp. 7-22.
McIllwain, Jeffrey S. (1999), “Organized Crime: a Social Network Approach”, en Crime, Law and Social Change, Vol. 32 Nº 4, pp. 301-323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008354713842
Meltzer, Allan H. y Richard, Scott F. (1981), “A Rational Theory of the Size of Government”, en The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 89 Nº 5, pp. 914-927. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/261013
Merton, Robert K. (1957), “Some Functions of the Political Machine”, en Social Theory and Social Structure, R. Merton (ed.), New York, Free Press.
Miller, Gary (2000), “Above Politics: Credible Commitment and Efficiency in the Design of Public Agencies”, en Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 10 Nº 2, pp. 289-328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024271
Montagna, Paul D. (1968), “Professionalization and Bureaucratization in Large Professional Organizations”, en American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 74 Nº 2, pp. 138-145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/224616
Moran, Jonathan (1998), “Corruption and NIC Development: a Case Study of South Korea”, en Crime, Law and Social Change, Vol. 29 Nos. 2-3, pp. 161-177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008344718274
Munck, Ronaldo (2012), Contemporary Latin America, New York, Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-01095-7
Naim, Moisés (1994), “Latin America: the Second Stage of Reform”, en Journal of Democracy, Vol. 5 Nº 4, pp. 32-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1994.0057
Nef, Jorge (2007), “Public Administration and Public Sector Reform in Latin America”, en The SAGE Handbook of Public Administration, B. Guy Peters y Jon Pierre (eds.), London, Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020970.n27
Niskanen, William A. (1968), “The Peculiar Economics of Bureaucracy”, en The American Economic Review, Vol. 58 Nº 2, pp. 293-305.
Nogueira, Marco A. (1994), “Democracia política, gobernabilidad y representación”, en Revista del CLAD Reforma y Democracia, Nº 1, pp. 7-26.
OECD (2011), Government at a Glance 2011, Paris, OECD Publishing.
Olowu, Dele y Wunsch, James S. (2004), Local Governance in Africa: the Challenges of Democratic Decentralization, Boulder, Lynne Rienner Publishers.
O’Toole, Laurence J., Jr. (1987), “Doctrines and Developments: Separation of Powers, the Politics-Administration Dichotomy, and the Rise of the Administrative State”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 47 Nº 1, pp. 17-25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/975468
Ouchi, William G. (1980), “Markets, Bureaucracies, and Clans”, en Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 25 Nº 1, pp. 129-141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2392231
Overeem, Patrick (2012), The Politics-Administration Dichotomy: Toward a Constitutional Perspective, Boca Raton, CRC Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b11888
Pandey, Sanjay K.; Coursey, David H.; y Moynihan, Donald P. (2007), “Organizational Effectiveness and Bureaucratic Red Tape: a Multimethod Study”, en Public Performance and Management Review, Vol. 30 Nº 3, pp. 398-425. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/PMR1530-9576300305
Pandey, Sanjay K. y Kingsley, Gorden A. (2000), “Examining Red Tape in Public and Private Organizations: Alternative Explanations from a Social Psychological Model”, en Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 10 Nº 4, pp. 779-800. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024291
Perlman, Bruce J. (1989), “Modernizing the Public Service in Latin America: Paradoxes of Latin American Public Administration”, en International Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 12 Nº 4, pp. 671-704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01900698908524645
Philip, George (2011), Democracy in Latin America, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
Pribble, Jennifer (2013), Welfare and Party Politics in Latin America, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139343299
Przeworski, Adam y Limongi, Fernando (1993), “Political Regimes and Economic Growth”, en The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 7 N° 3, pp. 51-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.7.3.51
Rauch, James E. y Evans, Peter B. (2000), “Bureaucratic Structure and Bureaucratic Performance in Less Developed Countries”, en Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 75 Nº 1, pp. 49-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00044-4
Risse, Thomas (ed.) (2013), Governance without a State?: Policies and Politics in Areas of Limited Statehood, New York, Columbia University Press.
Ritzer, George (1975), “Professionalization, Bureaucratization and Rationalization: the Views of Max Weber”, en Social Forces, Vol. 53 Nº 4, pp. 627-634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2576478
Roberts, Kenneth M. (2015), Changing Course in Latin America, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511842856
Rothstein, Bo (2011), The Quality of Government: Corruption, Social Trust, and Inequality in International Perspective, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226729589.001.0001
Rourke, Francis E. (1992), “Responsiveness and Neutral Competence in American Bureaucracy”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 52 Nº 6, pp. 539-546. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/977164
Sachs, Jeffrey D. y Warner, Andrew M. (2001), “The Curse of Natural Resources”, en European Economic Review, Vol. 45 Nº 4, pp. 827-838. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00125-8
Sasaki, Kyohei (1963), “Military Expenditures and the Employment Multiplier in Hawaii”, en The Review of Economics and Statistics, Nº 45, pp. 289-304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1923901
Schedler, Andreas (2014), “The Criminal Subversion of Mexican Democracy”, en Journal of Democracy, Vol. 25 Nº 1, pp. 5-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2014.0016
Sorensen, James E. y Sorensen, Thomas L. (1974), “The Conflict of Professionals in Bureaucratic Organizations”, en Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 19 Nº 1, pp. 98-106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2391790
Sowa, Jessica E. y Selden, Sally C. (2003), “Administrative Discretion and Active Representation: an Expansion of the Theory of Representative Bureaucracy”, en Public Administration Review, Vol. 63 Nº 6, pp. 700-710. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6210.00333
Steensma, David P. y Kantarjian, Hagop M. (2014), “Impact of Cancer Research Bureaucracy on Innovation, Costs, and Patient Care”, en Journal of Clinical Oncology, Vol. 32 Nº 5, pp. 376-378. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2013.54.2548
Svara, James H. (2012), “Macro-Ethics in the Code of the Pan-Generalist American Society for Public Administration”, en Public Integrity, Vol. 14 Nº 3, pp. 229-246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/PIN1099-9922140302
Tanzi, Vito y Davoodi, Hamid (1998), Roads to Nowhere: How Corruption in Public Investment Hurts Growth, Washington, International Monetary Fund. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-67939-4_4
Transparency International (2014), Corruption Perceptions Index: 2014, https://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/resultscorruption, 07/07/2014.
Ulfelder, Jay (2007), “Natural Resource Wealth and the Survival of Autocracies”, en Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 40 Nº 8, pp. 995-1018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006287238
Waters, Malcom (1989), “Collegiality, Bureaucratization, and Professionalization: a Weberian Analysis”, en American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 95 Nº 5, pp. 945-972. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/229109
Weimer, David L. (2005), “Institutionalizing Neutrally Competent Policy Analysis: Resources for Promoting Objectivity and Balance in Consolidating Democracies”, en Policy Studies Journal, Vol. 33 Nº 2, pp. 131-146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2005.00098.x
West, William F. (2005), “Neutral Competence and Political Responsiveness: an Uneasy Relationship”, en Policy Studies Journal, Vol. 33 Nº 2, pp. 147-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2005.00099.x
Williamson, Oliver E. (1981), “The Economics of Organization: the Transaction Cost Approach”, en American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 87 Nº 3, pp. 548-577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/227496
Xia, Ming (2008), “Organizational Formations of Organized Crime in China: Perspectives from the State, Markets, and Networks”, en Journal of Contemporary China, Vol. 17 Nº 54, pp. 1-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670560701693039
Yager, Joel y Katzman, Jeff E. (2015), “Bureaucrapathologies: Galloping Regulosis, Assessment Degradosis, and Other Unintended Organizational Maladies in Post-Graduate Medical Education”, en Acad Psychiatry, June 25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-015-0371-4
Yamamura, Eiji (2014), “Trust in Government and Its Effect on Preferences for Income Redistribution and Perceived Tax Burden”, en Economics of Governance, Vol. 15 Nº 1, pp. 71-100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10101-013-0134-1
Yashar, Deborah J. (1999), “Democracy, Indigenous Movements, and Postliberal Challenge in Latin America”, en World Politics, Vol. 52 Nº 1, pp. 76-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887100020037
Yong, Guo y Wei, Song (2013), “Methodology and Limitations of the Corruption Perception Index”, en Comparative Economics and Social Systems, N° 2013-05, CNKI.
Yu, Chilik; Chen, Chun-Ming; Juang, Wen-Jong; y Hu, Lung-Teng (2008), “Does Democracy Breed Integrity? Corruption in Taiwan During the Democratic Transformation Period”, en Crime, Law and Social Change, Vol. 49 Nº 3, pp. 167-184. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-007-9093-1
Como Citar
Licença
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
O conteúdo da revista é distribuído sob a licença Creative Commons Atribuição Não Comercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC-4.0), que permite aos usuários copiar, usar, difundir, transmitir e exibir publicamente o conteúdo, desde que a autoria seja citada (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0).